Theory Review: Jennifer

Brain and Mind in Learning
Jennifer Lantz
EDAC 635 Spring 2020

February 7, 2020
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Commented On
Jennifer Lantz
Rey Ramos
Jennifer Lantz
Travis Casper

Brain and Mind in Learning:  A Theory Review
            This review will take you through the history of prominent learning theories which led up to, and helped shape Brain-Based Learning (BBL).  In addition, while focusing on two principles (in italics) of BBL discuss the benefits of it and share some activities teachers can try. Mackeracher (2004) lists five principals of BBL: 
The brain as a parallel processor (able to multi-task), The brain’s need to process information, The brain as it processes conscious and out-of-conscious learning, The brain’s ability to learn in context not just information presented, and Activities have an effect on both cerebral hemispheres of the brain (pp. 100-102).     

            It seems logical for the brain, learning and instruction/teaching to go hand and hand.  I chose to start my research in the field of Psychology because it pertains to the study of the brain and its functions.  As I conducted my research I felt it would be easy to find supporting data and landmark studies.  Surprisingly, I came across literature that didn’t always support the idea of cohesiveness between disciplines.  In fact, a leading pioneer in psychology, William James, (as cited in Mayer, 2017) published in his little book, Talks to Teachers (1899/1958), p. 23), “You make a great, a very great mistake, if you think psychology, being a science of the mind’s laws, is something from which you can deduce definite programmes and schemes and methods of instruction for immediate classroom use” (p. 836).  Thankfully one of James’s students, E.L. Thorndike, didn’t share his belief and founded a new field of science connecting psychology and education known as educational psychology (Mayer, 2017). 
            The three learning theories developed in educational psychology are behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism.  The behavior theorists, like B.F Skinner, believe our minds are “blank slates” and that behavior can be modified through operant conditioning, which is stimulus and response, not so much thinking or learning as it is changing behavior.  Cognitive learning theories stem from the work of Jean Piaget, who believe humans can process information they receive and use that information to problem-solve—instead of simply responding to stimuli.  The work of Jean Piaget in this field eventually developed into constructivism.  Constructivist theorists believe learning happens through accommodation and assimilation, and that humans interpret and create meaning from their own experiences.  
            In the 1900s educational neuroscience attempted to connect the science of the brain with education.  Advancements in technologies such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and the electroencephalogram (EEG) enabled scientists to examine the brain in real time, unlike previous brain research that could only be conducted during an autopsy.  Now scientists can see what parts of the brain are responding to certain stimuli. 
            In the early 90s a movement in education emerged called Brain-Based Learning (BBL).  BBL stemmed from David Kolb’s experiential learning theory and learning styles which are convergent, divergent, accommodative, and assimilative.  I would like to point out the last two are also found it the constructivist learning theory mentioned previously.  Teachers were trying to improve learning by adapting lessons to students’ learning styles.  To me this seems like a great idea.  Why wouldn’t we want to embrace individual styles of learning, especially if it made learning easier and increased retention of information? 
            But, BBL wasn’t without its skeptics.  Questions such as “What does the brain have to do with learning?” were being asked (Worden, Hinton, and Fischer, 2011).  The biggest opposition came from Bruer (1997) when he authored an article titled, Education and the Brain:  A Bridge Too Far (Worden et al., 2011; Zadina 2015).  It seems psychologists, scientists and educators each felt the other disciplines were missing critical information important to their fields.   Educators believed “laboratories are often disconnected from the challenges of real classrooms” (Worden et al., 2011).  While scientists felt teachers “were lacking in scientific understanding” because they get “information second and third hand” leading to myths, misconceptions and misunderstandings of the brain (Zadina, 2015). 
            I wanted to include the three learning theories in Educational Psychology, along with Kolb’s learning theory because I feel each offers important attributes for us to pay attention to and build upon as we work toward improving education and making our classrooms rich learning environments for every student.   Unlike some naysayers, I do believe BBL has its place in education.   My question is what doesn’t the brain have to do with learning?
            If you are confused about BBL or are not convinced it has a place in education, perhaps this last point will sway you.  The goal of BBL is to diversify teaching methods to accommodate different styles of learning.  The outcome is improved learning.  An additional outcome is that the material learned is retained longer.  A recent study that investigated “the effects of teaching activities prepared with brain based learning model” concluded both these outcomes (Erol & Gulsah, 2018).  The purpose of the study was to see if they could replicate the same positive outcomes as prior studies such as Loyal (2013) in mathematics, Sel (2006) with foreign language, Pearl (2014) found BBL improved academic achievement, attitudes and retention of their learning, and Caine and Caine (1995) to name a few, and they did (Erol & Gulsah, 2018).   The BBL activities used by Erol and Gulsah included reflection and review of previous information, “such as repeating them before the beginning of the lesson, handling issues to be handled in connection with everyday life, and game-based preparation activities” (p. 17).     

Theoretical Point 1

            The brain learns best when facts and skills are embedded in natural context (Caine & Caine, 1990).  An example to explain this idea of learning embedded in context is to think about how we learn language.  At first our minds are “blank slates”—we don’t know any words, communication is by crying or laughing.  Our parents repeat simple words to us like momma, dada, yes, no.  We build a foundation of words and meanings.  We can also learn by using all our senses.  We watch television and hear conversation.  We see expressions on peoples’ faces and understand happy, sad, and angry.  We start understanding body language and put meaning to the word cold as we watch someone shiver.  We interact with others and carry on conversations.  Language, senses, social interactions, and the environment are all contexts in which we can embed learning.  Cain and Caine (1991) (as cited in Mackeracher, 2004) state “facilitating success depends on having learners use all their senses and immersing learners in many different, complex, and interactive experiences over time” (p. 102).
Application
            Some best practices for teachers to aid in learning are the use of classroom demonstrations, don’t just tell the students what to do, show them.   Visual imagery can also be very useful.  Imagine being a history teacher, instead of reading about WWI, have the students close their eyes and imagine hiding in a trench on a dark night with bombs bursting overhead.  A couple other suggestions include use of stories and drama, projects, field trips, or inserting a video clip.   
            I have learned that lecture has its place in education, but it also has its limits.  I have found it useful to break up lecture by interjecting stories to illustrate the lesson.  For instance, when we are learning decimals and place values, many students think 0.5 is five cents.  I could stand in front of the class and tell them, no, it isn’t, that represent fifty cents; but that doesn’t aid in learning as much as sharing a story.  Here I share a story about a sign at a concession stand that had 0.5 written on it.  As he showed the worker the quarter in his hand, my son said he didn’t have enough money to buy the piece of gum.  She replied, yes, you do.  In fact, you can buy 5 pieces.  Who is right, who is wrong?   As students share their reasoning regarding who was right, others confess they’ve probably made that mistake before too, but they won’t anymore. 
            I use colored markers on the board to emphasize certain steps, red stands out for be careful, pay attention.  Students can visualize the blue problem.  And, I encourage my students to use their senses by taking the time to write each step while they say the step in their head.  The repetition of seeing the process, and saying what they’re doing helps them learn. 
            I have been contemplating inviting the county assessor to be a guest speaker for my business class.  The county courthouse is just two blocks down from where I teach.  After reading about BBL, a guest speaker would be a nice change from our same routine, but an even better activity would be to schedule a fieldtrip and take my class to the courthouse for the lesson.

Theoretical Point 2

            You may have heard students explain away their difficulties or lack of interest because of being right-brained or left-brained.  This is a misconception stemming from science linking certain function dominance to specific sides of the brain, like the left hemisphere with speech and the right hemisphere with emotions.  The truth of the matter is the two hemispheres are interdependent.  Learning isn’t just about the content; it also produces an emotional response.  Think about it, while you are learning a foreign language, you are also learning whether you like it or not.  All this information is causing physiological changes to the brain, both sides.  New neural pathways are being made in the form of new branches of dendrites.  Poldrack, Halchenko, and Hanson (2009) (as cited in Worden, Hinton & Fischer, 2011) found with the help of functional imaging technology, like the fMRI, “that reading even a relatively simple word such as “dog” activates networks widely distributed across the brain, including both the right and left hemispheres” (p. 11). 

Application

            Teachers have a difficult challenge engaging students in learning activities especially if they already don’t like it, think they can’t, or just don’t want to.  Some BBL techniques that will help with learning and stimulate brain activity include starting class by asking students to share what they already know, use mnemonic devices, rhymes, songs or even humor. 
            Here’s a joke I share with my class, a shepherd tells his sheep dog it’s time to get the sheep in for the night.  When the sheep dog returns the shepherd asks how many he brought back.  The sheep dog replies, 100.  The shepherd in surprise asks, What?  How can that be?  You know we only had 98!  The sheep dog says, I know how many we have, I rounded them up.    
            Think about how much better church sermons would be with a little humor sprinkled in.   

Reflection

Highlights
Let’s conduct our own little experiment.  Now that you have read my review, reflect on what you remember.  Do you remember the theories or theorists mentioned?  Do you remember the colors that were used, the story or the joke?  If you answered yes to the latter question then the BBL activities worked!  Perhaps you will investigate this area further and consider adopting some activities in your discipline.  They are little changes that have a big impact for diverse learners.  The changes will improve learning and help students remember what they learned longer.  
Process

                I completed my review by following the steps in the Galvan article.  I’ll mention the ones that particularly helped me.  Step 3.2.3 recommends identifying landmark or classic studies and theorists, this is why I included the three educational psychology learning theories along with Kolb’s learning styles.  It took me a few days of reading and re-reading the articles to identify the trends as suggested in step 4.6.  I was surprised at the amount of time it actually took to narrow the topic and quotes.  My suggestion would be to not underestimate the amount of time it will take to sift through and sort the information, step 6.2.  Perhaps it’s the teacher in me that has the compulsion to explain everything, but step 6.2 used a very good analogy that constantly ran through my head.  It warns about describing the trees when you really should be describing the forest.   I also read the previous reviews and the comments that were posted.  Honestly, the samples were well done and made me think, I can do that.  Kind of how an Olympic gymnast performs with such ease and grace, you think you could do that too.  As I wrote my paper, I found it wasn’t as easy as the examples made it seem.  Even though I had a solid outline to follow, I struggled with the wording and how much information to include to convey the point I was trying to make.  I would also suggest leave plenty of time to edit your paper.   
Group 1:  The brain and mind in learning
Brain Based Learning
Theories/Theorists
Behaviorism:  B.F. Skinner
·         Operant Conditioning, stimulus response
Cognitivism:  Jean Piaget
·         Process information, problem-solve
Constructivism:  Jean Piaget
·         Assimilate & Accommodate
Learning Styles: David Kolb
·         Convergent, divergent, assimilative & accomodative
Theoretical point
Application & Activity
the brain’s ability to learn in context not just information presented
Senses
·         Sight, sound, touch, sound (taste could be used, but not included here)
Different environments
·         Visualization
·         Field trips
·         Video clips
Social interactions
·         Stories
·         Drama
activities have an effect on both cerebral hemispheres of the brain
Change the physiology of the brain by developing new connections (dendrites)
·         Review
·         Reflection
·         Repetition
·         Humor
·         Rhymes
·         Songs

Benefits of brain based learning
Improve learning
Learned material is retained longer



References

Caine, R. N., & Caine, G. (1990, October). Understanding a brain-based approach to learning and teaching. Educational Leadership, 48(2), 66-70.
Erol, M., & Gulsah, B. K. (2018, May). The effect of activities congruent with brain based learning model on students' mathematical achievement. NeuroQuantology, 16(5), 13-22. doi:10.14704/nq.2018.16.5.1342
Mackeracher, D. (2004). Making sense of adult learning. Toronto : University of Toronto Press.
Mayer, R. (2017, December). How can brain research inform academic learning and instruction? Educational Psychology Review, 29(4), pp. 835-846. doi:10.1007/s10648-016-9391-1
Worden, J., Hinton, C., & Fischer, K. (2011, May). What does the brain have to do with learning? Phi Delta Kappan, 92(8), 8-13. doi:10.1177/003172171109200803
Zadina, J. N. (2015, December). The emerging role of educational neuroscience in education reform. Psicologia Educativa, 21(2), 71-77. doi:10.1016/j.pse.2015.08.005

1 comment:

Carol said...

Jennifer,

I like how you applied some of the theories and challenged the learners to think back to how you applied them. I really find that visual color cues are helpful for me and many learners. I look forward to hearing how inviting a guest speaker like the assessor may aid in your teachings. I enjoyed your walk through history and tying psychology back to brain based learning.

Thanks!
Carol Shields